Summary
This article is part of a series of works I have done in recent years in the field of foreign language acquisition (L2), specifically with regard to learning English as a Foreign Language and multimodal learning at tertiary level. Addresses the complexities that need to comprehensively read narrative texts in English, without que se requiera de la traducción.
Palabras claves: comprensión lectora, adquisición de lenguas extranjeras, conocimientos previos.
Abstract
This article is part of a set of academic research works that I have carried out over the past years in the field of foreign language (L2) acquisition, specifically concerning the learning of English as a Foreign Language, and multimodal learning, at the third-education level. It deals with the problems that individuals may encounter when reading narrative texts in English, comprehensively, that is, without the need to translate.
Keywords: reading comprehension, foreign language acquisition, Knowledge previous.
Introduction
Since learning of foreign languages \u200b\u200b(L2) is based on procurement processes related to language material provided by the various systems of English to develop morphosyntactic structures, lexicographical and phonological interesting analyze how to operate the cognitive skills when students learn a foreign language through learning resources. The narratives created for this purpose differ significantly in relation to the processes occurring in the mother tongue (L1), whose development occurs through interaction natural communication.
In the specific case of a foreign language (L2) reading comprehension should be addressed explicitly through the various materials and resources available. In this context, the differences between the processes of language acquisition L1/L2, also produce different comprehension processes, hence this aspect is a high research interest for the issues raised. Therefore, this article identifies the key concepts related to reading comprehension in a foreign language (L2).
L2 Reading Comprehension in contrast to
occurring in the development of reading comprehension in the native language (L1) in foreign language (L2) are very different processes. In this regard, Koda (1994, cited in Rodriguez, Ochoa & Parker, 2006) raises three critical conditions that differentiate the L2 reading process with respect to its counterpart in L1: previous reading experience; interference interlingual (L1 versus L2) and limited linguistic knowledge that the reader has of the target language (L2). These factors may cause poor reading comprehension in the foreign language (L2).
Various linguistic research in the field have yielded the following findings:
· Importance of the discourse and graphic representations;
· Importance of vocabulary in language learning;
• Need linguistic awareness;
Existence of a threshold of competence in foreign language reading level;
· importance of metacognitive awareness [1] and learning strategies
• Need extensive reading for the implicit acquisition of vocabulary;
· Benefits of integration between reading ability and writing skills;
· Importance of content-based approach ( Richards & Renandya, 2002).
Moreover, when read in a foreign language (L2), the reader (in this case the student) is in a very different psychological position from which the student occupies in their native language (L1) (Ausubel, Novak & Hanesian, 2005). This means that the reader of a language (L1) have mastered the basic vocabulary and syntax of the language code and can, therefore, to read, understand and implement an acceptable syntactic propositions. Molina (2007, p. 4) puts it as follows: "Students of English as a foreign language may still be in acquisition phase of reading development, or a poor ability for not having made sufficient progress reading in their own language. "
not the same when reading a text in a foreign language (L2), where the processes involved have other rhythms. However, most specialists in L2 reading conceived as an interactive process. Thus, the reader interacts with the text to create meaning as the mental processes operate at different levels (Bernhardt, 1986; Carrell, Devine & Eskey, 1988, Rumelhart, 1977, cited Barnett, 1988). This means that if the mother tongue (L1) gives a good performance and good practice reading in a foreign language (L2) will get a better reading comprehension.
Barnett (1989) in his research on reading strategies in L2 found the following findings [2] :
(1) The effective readers tend to read a whole passage and then read it again in order to think about what they know about topic , hypothesize about what might come later, and guess the meaning of unfamiliar words.
(2) less effective readers focus on the meaning of individual words, pay more attention to the structure of the text, only re-read difficult passages, never or rarely hypothesized, and are reluctant to skip unfamiliar words.
research about reading strategies in L2 show that foreign language learners use various strategies to address or "interact" with a written text (Barnett, 1988). For example, novice readers or less successful attempt to process the text word by word, while the more skilled at avoiding the processing of words and choose to focus on the meaning and logical relations, even rejecting, in a sense, the printed text.
At this point, it is interesting to briefly address the various skills that occur in a communicative context and have a communicative purpose (Widdowson, 1978, cited in Hearn and Garcés, 2003), and generally proposed to address reading in L2 . Among these could include:
a) Extensive reading: reading for pleasure, with emphasis on global understanding.
b) Intensive reading: reading carefully you can find specific details of the text. Widely used in lexical processing of the text.
c) speed reading or skimming, speed reading that allows you to realize what it is about the text.
d) Reading Explorer and scanning, reading helps you find specific information in text. Generally used for schedules, routes, graphics, etc.
Because of this, usually the development of guided reading in L2 is raised from the calls of reading strategies. In this regard, it is common for teachers of foreign languages \u200b\u200bstarting with pre-reading activities (pre-reading) before proceeding with the reading itself. These could include previous discussions on the subject, presentation of photographs, review of key vocabulary, text organization (words, topic sentences, phrases, titles and subtitles, etc.).
In this context, the lexical domain is essential for achieving a good level of reading comprehension in L2. According to experts, to achieve a minimal understanding requires knowledge of 95% or more of the words found in a text (Laufer, 1989, cited in Richards & Renandya, 2002). Moreover, the level of reading comprehension depends on how well the reader variables (interest in the text, purpose for reading that text, subject knowledge, ability to learn a foreign language, awareness of the reading process, and willingness to take risks) interact with the text variables (text type, structure, syntax, and vocabulary) (Hosenfeld, 1979, cited in Barnett, 1988).
However, as a strategy of learning a foreign language (L2) always recommends extensive reading as an enabling strategy for reading comprehension. Extensive reading is related to read large amounts of material or longer readings, as such as entire books, with emphasis on the significance of what is read rather than the language (Carrell & Carson, 1997, cited in Richards & Renandya, 2002). The idea is to promote reading outside the classroom. In general, extensive reading is characterized by the following characteristics:
1. Required reading as possible.
2. Should be offered a variety of topics.
3. Students are encouraged to freely choose the topics to read.
4. Readings should be within the linguistic domain of foreign language (L2).
5. Reading is a personal experience.
6. The more you read further increases reading speed.
As can be seen, extensive reading as a strategy of learning a foreign language (L2), relies heavily on reading ability that you have in your native language (L1). In this sense, Susser and Robb (1990) argue that:
extensive reading as a teaching procedure can not be considered without reference to the transfer of reading skills in L1. So far, the only explanation of why extensive reading is effective is that it replicates the process by which we learn to read in our native language (p. 1).
A simple strategy to improve reading comprehension is proposed by Palinscar and Brown (1984, cited in Anderson 2001) in its program to improve reading skills. These authors identified four strategies, which could very well be extrapolated to the area of \u200b\u200bforeign language (L2): summarize, clarify problems, ask a question and make predictions about content. Although this strategy could be applied as such in foreign language learning (L2), we propose the following algorithm: identify meanings (new and unfamiliar words), summarize, ask questions and make predictions by paragraph both content and meaning.
Moreover, since the L2 reading comprehension requires extra effort by the reader, according to several authors it can facilitate incorporating with the text sounds, visuals and animations, which, taken together, play an important role in vocabulary acquisition and overall text comprehension (Chun & Pass, 1996a, 1996b; Cohen, Hanley & , Cole, 1995; Omaggio, 1979, cited in Chun, 1997). This is what is currently known as multi-modality through which learning a foreign language (L2) addresses from various modes combined.
Finally, Pilgreen and Krashen (1993, cited in Richards & Renandya, 2002) propose to develop the skill of sustained silent reading (SSR: Sustained Silent Reading), as a way to encourage reading classes then continue reading outside the classroom. In practice, this approach works when applied consistently and if you have several types of readings (both on different topics of interest in linguistic registers).
Background reading comprehension
Clearly, prior knowledge (linguistic, thematic, rhetorical and strategic) contribute substantively to the text comprehension. Following the theory of meaningful learning, the cognitive structure of the individual (the reader) contains ideas for strengthening [3] relevant to the new material (text) can relation (Ausubel et al., 2005). Therefore, the interaction that occurs between the meanings that provides the reader and the content of the text, whose meaning it must build, resulting in actual or psycholinguistic meanings of what is read. Today
reading comprehension is understood as a process in which readers must develop different cognitive strategies that enable them to reach an understanding of the meaning of the text. These strategies correspond to heuristics that students use to complete less structured tasks, such as those related to reading comprehension and writing (Rosenshine, 1996). However, since the understanding Reading is a complex process of meaning construction, the interaction that occurs between the new elements of the text and the reader's prior knowledge is essential for good reading comprehension.
regard to meaningful learning and their contributions to reading comprehension, one could argue that "the same process of acquiring information causes a change in both the newly acquired information and the relevant specific aspect of cognitive structure with which it is linked " (Ausubel et al. 2005, p. 62). Therefore, knowledge schemes are held by readers who are going to allow to integrate the new information presented in the text with which they possess.
On the other hand, when it comes to language (and as the focus of teaching and learning of foreign languages \u200b\u200bthat apply), the acquisition of meaning in a beginning reader has to do with "perceived the potential significance of Posts and then relate the potential significance perceived cognitive structure in order to understand "(Ausubel et al., 2005, p. 72). In the words of these authors, the construction of meaning from reading is therefore a simple process because the reader already knows denotative meanings and syntactic functions of spoken word forms.
Following the above theory, during the reading process, "beginner really not learning a whole new symbolic code, but rather the written equivalent of a spoken code known, whose vocabulary and syntax already mastered" ( Ausubel et al., 2005, p. 74). Therefore, reading comprehension is a prior mastery of spoken language. Within the communicative approach, which will be addressed later, this aspect makes sense because when it comes to developing the productive skills (speaking and writing), the first emphasizes oral production, thus they would be bringing linguistic inputs necessary to constitute part of the cognitive schemata that the reader then contrasted with written (text message).
is worth recalling that in the schema theory postulates that the information contained in the text is integrated into the background (eg linguistic input, thematic, etc..) And influences the process of reading comprehension. In this sense, reading becomes a dynamic process because the schemes are updated continuously. From the perspective of the mental, Mandler (1984), states the following:
All knowledge about an object or object classes, about an event or class of events, about personality traits and social norms can all be considered small networks of information that are activated as we experience situations and work according to certain principles schematic (p. 3).
According to schema theory, reading comprehension is an interactive process between the patterns of knowledge and text information. So when they receive new information, schemas are restructured and adjusted. Moreover, when a subject reads, the two processing models, downward and upward, are closely integrated as two concurrent threads. "All knowledge stored in the reader's memory are organizing and reorganizing every time you enter new information in a kind of inter-networking systems "(Parodi, 2003, p. 45). This allows the reader to "build" a kind of informational repository that allows you to build relationships and activate their prior knowledge. This is essential reading both narrative texts in L1 and L2. Conclusion
Reading comprehension of narrative texts in a foreign language (L2) is one of the greatest challenges in teaching the curriculum of English as a foreign language. Since the cognitive processes are evident in both languages \u200b\u200bare different, the educational resources related to the development of literacy skills are a major contribution to the creation of extra-textual clues (pictures, sound, etc.) to guide the decoding of meaning by the learner reader .
Moreover, prior knowledge (linguistic, thematic, rhetorical and strategic) play an important role in reading comprehension, allowing foreign language learners (L2) develop their own strategies for reading comprehension as a result of its interaction with the text. Bibliography
Anderson J. (2001) Learning and memory. A comprehensive approach. Mexico: McGraw-Hill Interamericana Editores, SA de CV
Barnett, MA (1988). Teaching Reading in a Foreign Language. ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages \u200b\u200band Linguistics Washington DC. ED305829. Retrieved on February 20, 2008, from: http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9211/reading.htm
Barnett, MA (1989). More than meets the eye: Foreign language reading. NJ: Pretince Hall, Inc.
Chun, D. Research on text comprehension in multimedia environments. Language Learning & Technology. 1 (1). 60-71. Retrieved on February 20, 2008, from: http://llt.msu.edu/vol1num1/chun_plass/default.html
Hearn I. & Garcés, A. (2002). Didactics English. Madrid: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Molina, F. (2007). Assessment of Reading Comprehension in English Language. Signs Electronic Journal (2). Universidad Católica de Valparaíso. Retrieved on December 11, 2007, from: http://www.attendis.es/Multimedia/171/signos9avanzando3.pdf
Richards, J. & Renandya, W. (2002). Methodology in language teaching. An anthology of current practice. Cambridge: CUP.
Rodriguez, W., Ochoa, S., & Parker, R. (2006). The crosslinguistic role of cognitive academic language proficiency on Reading Growth in English and Inglés. Bilingual Research Journal, 30. Retrieved on February 25, 2006, from: http://brj.asu.edu/vol30_no1/art5.pdf
Footnotes
page [1] have "metacognitive awareness" means being able think and talk about their own thought processes.
[2] In studies with native English speakers learning French.
[3] The term "consolidation" refers to the interaction that occurs between new information and pre-existing ideas (Ausubel, Novak & Hanesian, 2005).
About the author:
The Prof. Vera is a Professor of English State, BA in Education, Master of Science in Education c / m in Educational Administration and Management, MSc (c) in Teaching and Research University, MSc (c) in Curriculum and Assessment, PhD in Education Specialist CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning), free-lance translator , and educational and linguistic consultant.
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